Sapiens
# The Cognitive Revolution
## An Animal Of No Significance
~~~
In Homo sapience,
the brain accounts for about 2-3 per cent of total body weight,
but it consumes 25 per cent of the body`s energy when the body is at rest.
atrophy : the condition of losing flesh, muscle, strength
flesh : the soft substance between the skin and borns of animals
the skin : the skin of an animal is uniquely connected.
borns : a human has a lot of borns
Their muscles atrophied.
rip : tear sth or become torn, often suddenly or violently
I ripped my jeans on the fence.
The ape can rip the man.
rag : a rag doll : a piece of old, torn, cloth used especially for cleaning things
flint : a type of very hard grey stone
What then drove forward the evolution
of the massive human brain during those 2 million years?
locomotion : movement or the ability to move
supple : able to bend and move parts of your body into different positions
Natural selection consequently favoured earlier births.
Humans are born prematurely.
A colt can trot : a young male horse can run
colt : a young make horse
walk < tolt < run(canter)
forage : to search for food
tow : to pull a vehicle with rope
in tow : they are with you and following closely behind
It takes a tribe to raise a human.
womb : the organ in women and female animals in which babies develop before they are born
kiln : a large oven for baking cray and bricks
molten : heated to a very high temperature so that it becomes liquid
furnace : a space surrounded on all sides by walls and a roof
for heating metal or glass to very high temperatures
spun : [pp] spin
weak and marginal creatures :
dwelt in constant fear of predators
subsist : manage to stay alive, especially with limited food or money
(p12)
scoop up insects :
scoop : a tool like a big spoon with a large bowl, used when picking up substances
carrion : the decaying flesh of dead animals
carnivore : an animal who eats animal
marrow : a large vegetable that grow on the ground
bone marrow : a soft substance that fills the hollow parts of bones
extracting marrow from bones
transplant : to take an organ, skin, etc .. from one person
devour : to eat all of sth quickly, especially because you are very hungry
giraffe : a tall African animal with a very long neck, long legs
devour a giraffe
You don`t dare interfere with them.
scavenge the leftovers
scavenge : to search through waste or garbage for things that can be used or eaten
leftovers : food that has not been eaten at the end of a meal
As lions became deadlier, so gazelles evolved to run faster.
(p13)
~, which makes us doubly cruel and dangerous.
Many historical calamities, from deadly wars to ecological catasrophes,
have resulted from the over-hasty jump.
calamity : an event that causes great damage to people`s life
overhasty : done too soon, especially without enough thought
the domestication of fire : a state that sb get skills to use and control fire
Humans now had a dependable source of light and warmth.
prowl : to move carefully and quietly around an area, especially when hunting
charcoaled animals
charcoal : a black substance made by burning wood slowly in an oven with little air
Foods that humans cannot digest in their natural forms
staples of our diet
staple : a small piece of wire which is used in a stapler
staple : a basic type of food that is used a lot
My staple is not only rice but also spaghetti.
Whereas chimpanzees spend five hours a day chewing raw food,
a single hour suffice for people eating cooked food.
The advent of cooking : the coming of the event of an invention of `cooking`
(p14)
the shortening of the human intestinal track
intestine : a long tube in the body between the stomach and the anus
Since long intestines and large brains are both massive energy consumers,
it`s hard to have both.
Eagles indentity thermal columns rising from the ground,
spread their giant wings and allow the hot air to lift them upwards.
ignite a flame : to start to burn a flame (fire)
in a matter of hours
The domestication of fire was a sign of things to come.
archipelago : a group of islands and the sea surrounding them
Southeast Asian archipelago
peninsula : an area of land that is almost surrounded by water
but is joint to a larger piece of land;
Iberian peninsula
blip : a change in a process or situation, usually when it gets worse for a short time
before it gets better;a temporary problem
radar : a system that uses radio waves to find the position and movement of objects
a mere blip on the ecological radar :
only a temporal problem displayed on the ecological radar
(p15)
Sapiens was minding its own business in a corner of Africa
mind : look after
East Africa was populated by Sapiens
turn up : to be found
turned up in a modern morgue
morgue : a building in which dead bodies are kept
the entire Eurasian landmass
`Interbreeding Theory`
mingle : to combine or make one thing combine to another
clime : a country with a particular kind of climate
infirm : ill/sick and weak, especially over a long period or as a result of being old
brutish : unkind and violent and not showing thought or intelligence
caricatures : a funny drawing or picture of sb that exaggerates some of their features
cartoon : a funny drawing of a story that is on newspapers and ironic about politics, etc.
(p16)
Sapiens reached East Asia, they interbred with the local Erectus,
so the Chinese and Koreans are a mixture of Sapiens and Erectus.
interbeed - interbred :
revulsion : a strong feeling of disgust or horror
anatomy : the scientific study of the structure of human or animal bodies
odours : an unpleasant smell
the generic gulf separating the two populations was already unbridgeable.
lineage : the series of families that sb comes from originally
The lineages of all contemporary humans can be traced back, exclusively, to East Africa,
70,000 years ago.
(p17)
It turned out that 1-4 per cent of the unique human DNA of modern populations
in the Middle East and Europe is Neanderthal DNA.
fossilised finger
Denisova
6 per cent of the unique human DNA of modern Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians
is Denisovan DNA.
(p18)
cognitive : connected with mental processes of understanding
Homo sapiens drove Denisovans to extinction.
gather the nuts and berries
dwindle : to gradually become less or smaller
Their population dwindled, and they slowly died out,
except perhaps for one or two members who joined their Sapiens neighbours.
conpetition for resources flared up into violence and genocide.
Tolerance is not a Sapiens trademark.
A small difference in skin colour, dialect or religion has been enough
to prompt one group of Sapiens to set about exterminating another group.
prompt A to do : cause A to happen / make A decide to do
prompt : done without delay / immediate
set about : begin
exterminate : to kill all the members of a group of people or animals / (wipe out)
Whichever way it happend, ~.
history`s great what ifs
(p19)
Qur`an
righteous
sprawl
bureaucracy
the epitome of creation
a chasm
separates us from the rest of the animal kingdom
People were outraged.
This is exactly why our ancestors wiped out the Neanderthals.
(p20)
brainy : very intelligent
cold-proof
onslaught : a strong or violent attack
The debate continues to rage.
Homo sapiens conquered the world thanks above all to its unique language
~~~
## The Tree of Knowleadge
~~~
(p22)
overrun the rest of planet Earth
overrun : to fill or spread over an area quickly, especially in large numbers
The house was completely overrun with mice.
drive other human species to extinction
drive A to B
failed to secure a firm footing
firm : to make sth stronger or harder
firm the soil around the plant
nasty natives
nasty : very bad or unpleasant
inclement : (of the weather) not pleasant, cold or wet (<=> clement)
cognitive abilities : learning, remembering, communicating
Teaching them would probably have been hopeless undertakings.
(It is hopeless to teach them)
undertake a task
(p23)
The period witnessed the invention of boats, oil lamps, bows and arrows and needles.
commerce
social strafication
explain to them everything we know
Accidental genetic mutations changed the inner wiring of the brains of Sapiens,
enabling them to think in unprecedented ways and to communicate using an altogether new type of language.
unprecedented : that has never happened
(p24)
inform one another of the whereabouts of food
A parrot can say anithing Albert Einstein could say.
(p25)
She can then describe the exact location
Our language evolved as a way of gossiping.
gossip : talk or speack about other people`s private life, that maybe unkind or not true
(p26)
stagger : to walk with weak unsteady steps, as if you are about to fall / shock or surprise
staggerring : shocking
have trouble doing
Apes have trouble gossiping.
a muck maligned ability
malign A : to say bad things about A publicly
Even today the vast majority of human communication
- whether in the form of emails, phone calls or newspaper columns - is gossip.
(p27)
cheats and freeloaders
guardian
This ability to speak about fictions is the most unique feature of Sapiens language.
After all, fiction can be dangerously misleading or distracting.
distract A : to take A`s attention away from what they are trying to do
enable A to do
Fiction enabled us not merely to imagine things, but to do so collectively.
weave - wove - woven : to make a cloth or by crossing threads or strip across, over and under each other by hand
We can weave common myths such as the biblical creation story.
Ants and bees can also work together in huge numbers,
but they do so in a very rigid manner and only wih close relatives.
rigid : very strict and difficult to change
(p28)
Sapiens can cooperate in extremely flexible ways with countless numbers of strangers.
Less benevolently,
he might monopolise particularly coveted foods and prevent lowerranking makes from mating with the females.
benevolent : kind, helpful, and generous
covet : to want very much, especially sth belongs to sb else
When two males are contesting the alpha position,
they usually do so by forming extensive coalitions of supporters.
coalition : a government formed by two or more political parties working together
He leads a large and stable coalition.
overt : done in an open way and not secretly
(p29)
There are clear limits to the size of groups
the social order destabilities, eventually leading to a rupture
destability <=> stability
rupture : an injury in which sth inside the body breaks apart or bursts
troop : soldiers, especially in large groups
prolonged warfare
warfare : the activity of fighting a war, especially using a particular weapon
prolong : to make sth last longer
slaughter : to kill an animal, usually for its meat
Sociological research has shown that the maximum `natural` size of a group bonded by gossip is about 150 individuals.
Even today, a critical threshold in human organisations falls somewhere around this magic number.
(p30)
rumour-mongering
rumour-monger : a person who spread rumours
A platoon of thirty soldiers or even a company of a hundred soldiers can function well on the basis of intimate relations, with a minimum of formal dicipline.
platoon : a small group of soldiers that is part of a company and commanded by a lieutenant
lieutenant : an officer of middle rank in the army, navy, or air force.
second lieutenant / sub lieutenant / flight lieutenant
A well-respected sergeant can become `king of the company` and exercise authority even over commissioned officers.
sergeant : a memeber of one of the middle ranks in the army, .. below an officer
flourish without a board of directors
The threshold of 150 indivisuals is crossed.
Successful family businesses usually face a crisis when they grow larger and hire more personnel.
If they cannot reinvent themselves, they go bust.
bust : to break sth /
bust : 1. a stone or metal model of person`s head 2. a woman`s breasts for the measurement
archaic : old and no longer used
crusade : a long and determined effort to achieve sth that you believe to be right and stop that you believe to be wrong
incarnated : in human form
(p31)
outside the common imagination of human beings
cement
believe in ghosts
sorcerer : a man with magic power
shaman : a person in a religions and societies who is believed to be contact spirits.
Modern lawyers tell far stranger tales.
It`s the hood ornament that adorns vehicles made by Peugeot.
What if every Peugeot in the world were simultaneously junked and sold for scrap metal?
The company owns factories, machinery and showrooms, and employs mechanics, accountants and secretaries, but all these together do not comprise Peugeot.
comprise : 1. consist of / build up
(p32)
borrow money
shareholder
invulnerable
figment
legal fiction
It can be sued and prosecuted seperately from any of the people who own or work for it.
sue : to make a claim against sb in court
prosecute A (for B) : to officially charge A with crime B in court
(p33,34)
destitute : without money, food and the other things necessary for life
`corporation` : the term derives from `corpus` (`body` in Latin)
throughout history
parliament : the group of people who are elected to make and change the laws of the country
legislator : a memebr of a group of people that has the power to make laws
liturgy : a fixed form of public worchip used in churches
ritual : a series of actions performed always in the same way, especailly as part of a reliious ceremony
The lawyer affixed his ornate signature to the bottom of the document.
ornate : covered with a lot of decorations
He paid a lawyer to go through all these sacred procedures.
Once the lawyer had performed all the right rituals and pronounced all the necessary spells and oaths, millions of upright French citizen behaved as if the Peugeot company really existed.
Much of history revolves around this question.
revolve : to go in a circle around a central point
Just try to imagine how difficult it would have been to create states, or churches, or legal systems if we could speak only about things that really exist, such as rivers, trees and lions.
woven : weave - wove - woven : to make cloths with combining threads
immense : extremely large or great
This alarm conveniently frightened away a fellow monkey who had just found a banana, leaving the liar all alone to steal the prize for itself.
Unlike lying, an imagined reality is something that everyone believes in, an imagined reality is something that everyone believes in, and as long as this communal belief persists, the imagined reality exerts force in the world.
communal : shared by, or for the use of , a number of people, especially people living together
charlatan : a person who claims to have knowledge or skills which they do not really have
(p35)
Sapiens have thus been living in a dual reality.
In 1789 the French population switched almost overnight from believing in the myth of the divine right of kings to believing in the myth of the sovereignty of the people.
Sapiens soon far outstripped all other human.
outstrip
autocrat
quirk
(p36)
egalitatian
gather in a constitutional assembly
the Catholic priesthood
Buddhist monastic orders
Chinese eunuch bureaucracies
These dominant members of society willingly give up procreation.
(p38)
sire a large propotion of their troop`s young - the Catholic alpha male abstains completely from sexual intercourse
abstinence
pope
reunify
She had managed to be a part of five very different sociopolitical systems, through her DNA remained exactly the same.
In a one-on-one brawl, ~.
Without an ability to compose fiction, ~.
excavate
(p39)
In all likelihood, these shells got to the continental interior through long-distance trade between different Sapiens bands.
manufacture tools
Trade may seem a very pragmatic activity, one that needs no fictive basis.
engage in :
(p40)
If archaic Sapiens believing in such fictions traded shells and obsidian, it stands to reason that they could also hae traded information.
obsidian : a kind of black rock looks like glass and comes from volcano
surround an entire herd of animals
herd : a group of animals of the same type that live and feed together
herd : a large group of people of the same type
She pushed her way through a herd of lunchtime drinkers.
A boy pushed his way through a crowd.
en masse : (French) all together , and usually in large numbers
chase the horses into a narrow gorge
gorge : a deep narrow valley with steep sides
If all went according to plan, the bands could harvest tons of meat, fat and animal skins in a single afternonn of collective effort, and either consume these riches in a giant potlatch, or dry, smoke or freeze them for later usage.
Entire herds were butchered annually
erect
artificial traps and slaughtering grounds
If violence broke out between the two species, ~.
(p41)
The immense diversity of imagined realities that Sapiens invented, and the resulting diversity of behaviour patterns, are the main components of what we call `cultures`.
the realm of biology
realm : an area of activity, interest, or knowledge
(p42)
Human culture became exempt from biological laws.
Our physical abilities are still shaped by our DNA
at the level of the individual or the family
embarrassingly similar to chimpanzees
when we cross the threshold of 150 individuals
astounding
pandemonium
Sapiens regularly gather by the thousands.
The mythical glue that binds together large numbers of individuals.
This glue has made us the masters of creation.
(p43)
Physiologically, there has been no significant improvement in our tool-making capacity over last 30,000 years.
dexterous
uranium ore
(p44)
As far as we know, the people who carved tha Stadel lion-man some 30,000 years ago had the same physical, emotional and intellectural abilities we have.
~~~
What happened in the Cognitive Revolution ?
- The ability to transmit information about the world `surrounding` them.
- The ability to transmit information about their social relationship (resulting groups up to 150)
- The ability to transmit information about what do not really exist such as spirits, nations, companies, and human rights (resulting cooperation between very large numbers of strangers)
## A Day in the Life of Adam and Eve
~~~
(p45)
Sapiens lived as farmers and herders, are the blink of an eye compared to the tens of thousands of years during which our ancestors hunted and gathered.
herder : a person whose job is to take care of a group of animals such as sheep and cows
flourish : to develop quickly and be successful or common
alienate : to make sb less friendly, to make sb feel that they do not belong in a particular group
delve into the hunter-gatherer world that shaped up, the world that we subconciously still inhabit
delve : to search for sth inside a bag, or a container ...
gorge on high-calorie food
gorge : to eat a lot of food, until you are too full to eat any more
(p46)
throes of a plague of obesity
plague A : to cause pain or trouble to A over a period of time
obesity : being very fat
obese : very fat
binge on A : to eat or drink A too much, especially without being able to control yourself
forager forebear
forebear : a person in your family who lived a long time ago
A typical forager 30,000 years ago had access to only one type of sweet fruit - ripe fruit.
a tree groaning with figs
groan : to make a long deep sound because you are annoyed, upset, or in pain
groan : to make a sound like a person
fig : a soft sweet fruit that is full of small seeds and often eaten dried
Today we may be living in high-rise apartments with over-stuffed refrigerators, but our DNA still thinks we are in the savannah. (`gorging gene` theory)
contentious : likely to cause disagreement between people
According to the beliefs of such societies, a child is not born from the sperm of a single man, but from the accumulation of sperm in a woman`s womb.
sperm : a cell that is produced by the sex organs of a male
womb : the organ in female in which babies develop before they are born
(p47)
when she is pregnant
pregnant : having a baby inside her body
warrior : a person who fight in a battle or a war
considerate lover
bear in mind that
Beefore the development of modern embryological studies, people had no solid evidence that babies are always sired by a single father rather than by many.
infidelities :
infidelity : the act not being faithful to your wife, husband, or a partner by having sex with sb else
cornucopia : a decorative object like an animal`s horn, shown in art as full of fruit and flowers
vehemently - vehement : showing very strong feelings, especially anger
monogamy : the custom of being married to one person at a particular time
communal :
egalitarian : the belief that everyone should be equal and have the same rights and oppotunities
Nuclear family are the norm in the vast majority of cultures.
the start of the Agricultural Rebolution about 12,000 years ago
There are few certainties regarding the lives of our forager ancestors.
flimsy : badly made and not enough strong for the porpose for which it is used
(p48)
Artefacts made of more perishable materials
perishable
perish
misconception
problematic
Our eating habits are mediated by a mind-boggling collection of such items, from spoons and glasses to genetic engineering labs and gigantic ocean-going ships.
a plethora of toys
plethora
Our romantic and sexual relations are accountred by rings, beds, nice clothes, sexy underwear, condoms, fashionable restaurants, cheap motels, airport lounges, wedding halls and catering companies.
(p49)
myriad objects
unearthed
It`s much the same dilemma that ~
surviving snail mail
A reliance on artefacts will thus bias an account of ancient hunger-gatherer life.
remedy
anthropological
Consequently, it`s risky to assume that what is true of them was also true tens of thousands of years ago.
inhospitable terrain, ill-suited for agriculture
(p50)
Each tribe had its own language, religion, norms and customs.
Australia were several patrilineal clans that reckoned descent from the father`s side.
totem : an animal or other natural objects that is chosen and respected as a special symbol of a community or a family
reincarnation : to be born in another body after you have died
This was nonsense.
(p51)
can help us understand
The ancient horizon of possibilities was much broader, and most of it is hidden from our view.
bewilder : confuse
What generalisations can we make about life ?
Nevertheless, what ? (if not what ? )
Most members of agracultural and industrial societies are domesticated animals.
They are not equal to their masters.
There was just one exception to htis general rule: the dog.
incontrovertible evidence
human intruders
intruder : a person who enter a building or an area illegaly
(p52,53)
With the passing of generations, the two species co-evolved to communicate well with each other.
Dogs were most attentive to the needs.
attentive to A : listening and watching carefully and with interest
cemented political alliances
constitute a trible
common norms and values
amber and pigments
amber : a hard clear yellowish-brown substance, used in making decorative objects or jewellery
sporadic : happening only occasionally or at intervals that are not regular
roam from place to place : wander from place to place
turf : short grass and the surface layer of soil that is held together by its roots
turf : the place where sb lives or works
Occasionally, bands wandered outside their turf.
(p54)
If a forager band split once every forty years and its splinter group migrated to a new territory a hundred kilometres to the east,
the distance from East Africa to China would have been coverd in about 10,000 years.
splinter : a small piece of wood, metal, glass, etc. that has broken off a larger piece
Most importantly, alongside seas and rivers rich in seafood and waterfowl, humans set up permanent fishing villages.
They scrounged for termites and stalked rabbits.
scrounge : to get sth by asking them rather than paying for it
termite : an insect that lives in organised groups, mainly in hot countries
Notwithstanding the popular image of `man the hunter`, ~.
notwithstand
withstand : to be strong enough not to be hurt or damaged by extreme conditions, the use of force, etc.
They foraged for knowledge as well.
They required information about the growth patterns of each plant and the habits of each animal.
They neede to know which foods were nourishing, which made you sick, and how to use others as curses.
vicinity : the area around a particular place
(p55)
avalanche : a mass of snow, ice and rocks that falls down the side of a mountain
apprenticeship feat :
apprentice : a young person who works for an employer for a fixed period of time
in order to learn the particular skills that are needed for their jobs
miserably
lack expert knowledge of
the flaking properties of flint and basalt
flake : a small, and thin layer of sth
flint : a type of very hard grey stone that can produce a spark when it is hit against steel
basalt : a type of dark rock that comes from volcano
skilful people in history
superb mental abilities
`niches for imbeciles`
They listened to the slightest movement in the grass.
foliage : the leaves of a tree or a plant; leaves and branches together
beehives : a structure made for bees to live in
birds` nest
agile : able to move quickly and easily (syn: nimple)
a strong and agile athlete
(p56)
physical dexterity
dexterity : skill in using your hands or your mind
You need manual dexterity to be good at video games.
While people in today`s affluent societies work an average of forty to forty-five hours a week, and people in the developing workd work sixty and even eighty hours a week,
They hunt only one day out of three.
chore
nappy
factory hand
roam the nearby forests
edible
plenty of time to gossip
(p57)
foraging proided ideal nutrition
suffer from malnutrition
This was due largely to the high incidence of child mortality.
perilous
snails and turtle for lunch
(p58)
ravaged by famine when drout, fire, earthquake devastates the annual rice or potato crop
Forager societies were hardly immune to natural disasters.
deal with such calamities
infectious diseases
plague
smallpox, measles and tuberculosis
dosticated only dogs
slain
(p59)
The Ache people, hunter-gatherers who lived in the jungle of Paraguay
When a valued band member died, the Ache customarily killed a little girl and buried the two together.
They shunned domineering people.
They were extremely generous with their few possessions.
They viewed the killing of children, sick people and the elderly as many people today view abortion and euthanasia.
(p60)
fiend
be gathered from a square kilometre of forest
importance of walnuts
humdrum
If a forager boy wanted to take a forager firl to a romantic spot, did the shade of a walnut tree suffice?
The world of thought, belief and feeling is by definition far more difficult to decipher.
(p61)
rejoice :
mollify
bush
crow
malevolent beings : the kind that we today call demons, fairies and angels
pacify
In aminism in forager societies, the entities being addressed are local beings.
They are not universal gods.
Saying that ancient foragers were probably animists is like saying that pre modern agriculturists were mostly theists.
(p62)
ethereal entities
rabbis
weird
heretical
But these cautious generalisations are about as far as we can go.
in myriad ways
which taboos they observed
The sociopolitical world of the foragers is another area about which we know next to nothing.
(p63)
ivory : a hard yellowish white substance like bone that forms the tusks(=long teeth)of elephants
(p64)
incarnate : in human form
incarnation : a period of life in a particular form
(such as a teacher/student/lawyer (engaging some jobs in a particular form in the society))
incarnation : a person who represents a particular quality, for example, in human form
incarnation : the act of God coming Earth in human form as Jesus
ritual : a series of actions performed always in the same way, especially as a part of ceremony
ritual : done by a ritual way / always done or said in the same way, especially not sincerely
ritually :
rite : a ceremony performed by a particular group of people, often for religious purpose
entombed with pomp and circumstance
(p65)
went far beyond the dictates of our DNA
(p66)
Both schools of thought are castles in the air, connected to the ground
by the thin strings of meagre archaeological remains and anthropological observations of present-day foragers.
meaggre : small in quantity and poor in quality
intriguing : very interesting because of being unusual or not having an obvious answer
eruption
Amerindian
imperialism
scare
opaque
telltale
fortification : a tower, wall, gun position, etc. built to defend a place against attack
spare : kept in case you need to replace the one
spear : a weapon with a long wood handle and a sharp metal point used for fighting, hunting and fishing in the past
artillery
fossilise
no less hard to interpret
A fracture might indicate a war wound.
coveted foraging grounds
(p67)
In the dicisive battle
most fell victim to some natural disaster
predating the Revolution
skull
During the twentieth century, only 5 per cent of human deaths resulted from human violence.
Arrowheads
(p68)
pits
clubs
massacred at Ofnet
tranquillity
riven by ferocious
largely irretrievable
inquisitions
anatomy
neighbouring
shrouds
(p69)
brought people to tears with the sound of their bamboo flutes
pristine
desolate
~~~
## The Flood
~~~
(p70)
The orgasms of distant lands like Madagasascar evolved
in isolation
for millions upon millions of years,
taking on shapes and natures very different from
those of their distant Afro-Asian relatives
made up of a unique assembly of animals
exuberance :
exuberant : full of energy, excitement and happiness
adapt to
adopt : 1. to take sb else`s child in your family and become its legal parent
A campaign encouraged childless couples to adopt.
She was forced to have her baby adopted.
2. raise / bring up
She adopted her sister`s child.
(p71)
manoeuvre ocean-going vessels
This would have brought about an unprecedent transformation in human capabilities and life styles.
brought about A in
unprecedented : that has never happened
The situation is unprecedented in modern times.
aeons : an extremely long time of period / thousands of years
seafarer : a sailor
True, archaeologists have yet to unearth rafts, oars or fishing villages
that date back as far as 45,000 years ago.
Nevertheless, there is strong circumstantial evedence to support the theory.
the Apollo 11 expedition to the moon
large terrestrial mammal : a mammal which live around a large territory
(p72)
Their effort on their environment had been negligible.
conqueror
expunge
Koalas far too big to be cuddly and cute rustled in the trees.
Flightless birds twice the size of ostriches sprinted on the plains.
cuddly - cuddle : close in your arms to show love or affection
A couple of teenagers were kissing and cuddling on the doorstep.
rustle A : to give A a sound of papers, leaves, etc.
ostrich : a very large African bird with long neck and legs that cannot fly and run very fast
sprint : to run very fast in a short distance
splint : a long piece of wood or metal that was tied up to a broken arm or leg
splinter : a small thin sharp piece of wood that has broken off a larger piece
marsupial
fetus-like
abdominal
nurtured with
They reigned supreme.
Food chains throughout the entire Australian ecosystem were broken and rearranged.
(p73)
exonerate
vagary
scapegoat
alibi
megafauna
It wasn`t a very remarkable upheaval.
Earth`s climate never rests.
It is in constant flux.
Every event in history occurred against the background of some climate change.
diprotodon
fluke
by coincidence
(p74)
Explain why the wave of extinctio obliterated the terrestrial megafauna of Australia while sparing that of nearby oceans.
Despite its burgeoning navigational abilities
burgeon : to begin to grow or develop rapidly
terrestrial menace
menace :
akin
archetypal
ensuing
irrefutable
befell
By 10,000 years ago there was not a single mammoth.
conspicuous
grant humans the benefit of the doubt
(p75)
at their disposal
Consequently, if humans cut down even one diptrotodon every few months, it would be enough to cause diprotodon deaths to outnumber births.
lonesome
assilant
hone
The big beasts of Africa and Asia learned to avoid humans, so when the new mega-predator - Homo sapiens - appeared on the Afro-Asian scene, the large animals already knew to keep their distance from creaturess that looked like it.
In constrast, the Australian giants had no time to learn to run away.
impassable thickets
(p76)
inaugurated
Since eucalyptuses are particularly resistant to fire, they spread far and wide while other trees and shrubs disappeared.
munch
Many Australian food chains collapsed, driving the weakest links into extinction.
beset : to affect in unpresant or harmful way
vulnerable : weak and easily hurt physically or emotionally
recuperate : to get back your health, strength or energy after being ill/sick, tired or injured
However, humans appeared on the stage at just this critical juncture and pushed the brittle ecosystem into the abyss
brittle : hard but easily broken
Single concrete without steels is brittle against stretching it.
abyss : a very wide space or hole that seems to have no bottom
juncture : a particular point or stage in an activity or a series of events
(p77)
an arduous journey
arduous : involving a lot of efforts and energy, especially over a period of time
withstand :
No previous human species had managed to penetrate places like northern Siberia.
When roaming bands of Sapiens foragers migrated into colder climates, they learned to make snowshoes and effective thermal clothing composed of layers of furs and skins, sewn together tightly with help of needles.
fur : the soft thick mass of hairs that grows on the body of some animals
banish oneself to :
banish A : to order A to leave a place, especially a country as a punishment
by choice
reindeer
a vast quantity of meat which, given the frosty temperatures, could even be frozen for later use
(p78)
glacier
en masse
basin : a large round bowl for holding liquids or for preparing foods in
struck roots in : make their homes in
pampas
the island of Tierra del Fuego
blitzkrieg
ingenuity
using virtually the same genes
fauna : all the animals living in an area or in an particular period of history
rodent : any small animal that belongs to a group of animals with strong sharp front teeth such as mice, rats and rabbits
(p79)
sabre-tooth cat
more exotic menagerie of large mammals
menagerie : a collection of wild animals
The Americas : The North America and the South America
all species of mammoth ticks
oblivion
palaeontologist
combing the plain
comb : a flat piece of plastic or metal with a row of thin teeth along one side, used for making your hair neat
in search of A
petrified faece :
petrify A : to make A feel extremely frightened
sloth : an American animal that lives in trees and moves very slowly
coprolite
turd : a lump of solid waste from bowels
bowel : the tube along which food passes after it has been stomach
Sausages are made with bowels which is cleaned and which they stuff with meat
meticulous : paying careful attention to every detail
freshest - fresh
dung ball : a ball-shaped solid waste from animal
scat : a style of singing in which the voice is made to sound like a musical instrument
(p80)
The dung ball cannot be dodged
culprit : a person who has done sth wrong or against the law
abet : to help or encourage sb to do sth wrong
befall A : to happen to A
The disaters befell the animal kingdom.
(The disaters fell to the animal kingdom as rain falls on it.)
furry : covered with fur
The ecological tragedy was restaged in miniature countless times after the Agricultural Revolution.
The tragedy opens with a scene showing a rich and varied populatino of large animals, without any trace of humans.
In scene two, Sapiens appear, evidenced by a human bone, a spear point, perhaps a potsherd.
Scene three quickly follows, in which men and women occupy centre stage and most large animals, along with many smaller ones, are gone.
(p81)
lemur : an animal like a monkey, with thick fur and a long tail, living in Madagascar
kill off A : extinguish A
fauna : all the animal living in an area or in a particular period of history
(p82)
Thousands of islands which pepper the Atlantic Ocean. (locates around)
tortoise
Don`t believe tree-huggers who claim that our ancestors lived in harmony with nature.
dubious : (of a person) not certain and suspicious about sth
nonchalant :
eradicate : wipe out / extinguish / kill off / destory or get rid of sth completely
(p83)
If things continue at the present pace it is likely that
whales, sharks, tuna and dolphins will follow the diprotodons, ground sloths and mammoths to oblivion
oblivion : 1. a state in which you are not aware of what is happening around you, usually because you are unconscious or asleep
oblivion : 2. a state in which sb/sth has been forgetten and is no longer famous or important
oblivion : 3. a state in which sth has been completely destroyed
galley : a long flat ship with ships, rowed by slaves
~~~
# The Agricultural Revolution
## History`s Biggest Fraud
~~~
(p87)
where figs trees would take root,
in which meadow a heard of sheep should graze,
or which billy goat would inseminate which nanny goat
graze
amply
Sapiens began to
devote almost all their time and effort to manipulating the lives of a few animal and plant. species
From sunrise to sunset humans sowed seeds, watered plants, plucked weeds from the ground
and led sheep to prime pastures.
pasture
sow
pluck
Wheat and goats were domesticated by approximately 9000 BC;
peas and lentils around 8000 BC;
olive trees by 5000 BC;
horses by 4000 BC;
grapevines in 3500 BC.
Camels and cashew nuts were domesticated even later.
(p88)
maize : a tall plant grown for its large yellow grains that are eaten as a vegetable
millet : a type of plant whose seeds are used mainly for making flour
flour : a fine white or brown powder made from grain, especially wheat,
and used in cooking for making bread, cakes, etc.
barley : a plant grown for its grain used for making food, beer, and whisky
China`s first revolutionaries domesticated rice, millet and pigs.
Northi America`s first gardeners were those who got tired of combing the undergrouth
for edible gourds and decided to cultivate pumpkins.
New Guineans tamed sugar cane and bananas,
while the first West African farmers made African millet, African rice, sorghum and wheat
conform to their needs.
conform : to bahave and think in the same way as most people in a group or society
sorghum : very small grain grown as food in toropical countries
truffle : an expensive type of fungus that grows underground, used in cooking
fungus - fungi : mashrooms and mildew are both fungi
ferocious : very aggresive or violent
(p89)
Scholars once proclaimed that
the agricultural revolution was a great leap forward for humanity.
Eventually, people were so smart that they were able to decipher nature`s secret,
enabling them to tame sheep and cultivate wheet.
As soon as this happened, they cheerfully abandoned
the gruelling, dangerous and often spartan life of hunter-gatherers,
settling down to enjoy the pleasant, satiated life of farmers.
gruel : a simple dish made by boiling oats in milk or water
gruel(l)ing : very difficult and tiring, needing great effort for a long time
spartan life : a simple or severe life which lacks anything that make it easier
satiated life : a life that is full of what to do and they can not do any other things
satiate : to give sb so much of sth that they do not feel they want any more
Rather than heralding a new era of easy living,
the Agricultural Revolutions left farmers with lives generally more difficult
and less satisfying than those of foragers.
(p90)
The Agricultural Revolution certainly enlarged the sum total of food at the disposal of humankind,
but the extra food did not translate into a better diet or more leisure.
Rather, it translated into population explosions and pampered elites.
culprit : a person who has done sth wrong or against the law
culprit : a person or thing responsible for causing a problem
These plants domesticated Homo sapiens, rather than vice versa.
How did this grass turn from insignificant to ubiquitous ?
Wheat did it by manipulating Homo sapiens to its advantage.
Within a couple of millennia,
humans in many parts of the world were doing little from dawn to dusk
other than taking care of wheat plants.
(p91)
Sapiens broke their backs clearing fields.
Wheat was attacked by rabbits and locust swarms,
so the farmers built fences and stood guard over the fields.
locust : a large insect that lives in hot countries and flies in large groups
swarm : a large group of insects, especially moving together in the same direction
Wheat was thirsty, so human dug irrigation canals or lugged heavy buckets from the well to water it.
thirsty : needing or wanting to drink
dug - dig : remove an amount of soil from the ground to get deeper or make a hole
irrigation :
irrigate : to supply water to an area of land through pipes or canals so that crops will grow
lug : to carry or drag sth heavy with a lot of effort
spine : a row of small bones that are connected together down the middle of the back
arch : 1. a curved structure that supports the weight of sth above it
arch : 2. the raised part of foot formed by a curved section of bones
Studies of ancient skeletons indicate that
the transition to agriculture brought about a plethora of ailments,
such as slipped discs, arthritis and hernias.
arthritis : a disease that cause a pain or swelling in one or more joints of the body
The `domesticate ` comes from the Latin `domus`, which means `house`.
Remember, humans are omnivorous apes who thrive on a wide variety of foods.
omnivorous : having wide interests in a particular area or activity
peasant
(p92)
Peasants died by the thousands.
(p93)
Many anthropological and archaeological studies indicate that
in simple agricultural societies with no political frameworks beyond village and tribe,
human violence was responsible for about 15 per cent of deaths,
including 25 per cent of male death.
In contemporary New Guinea,
violence accounts for 30 per cent of male deaths.
In time,
human violence was brought under control through the development of larger social frameworks
- cities, kingdom and states.
But it took thousands of years to build such huge and effective political structures.
Yet for the average person,
the disadvantages probably outweighed the advantages.
prosperous society
affluence : ( syn : prosperity )
malnutrition : a poor condition of health caused by a lack of food or a lack of the right type of food
Would she say, `I am dying from malnutrition,
but in 2,000 years, people will have plenty to eat and live in big air-conditioned houses,
so my suffering is a worthwhile sacrifice ?
bestow : to give sth to sb to show how much they are respected
Cultivating wheat provided much more food per unit of territory,
and thereby enabled Homo sapiens to multiply exponentially.
(p94)
Wild plants gave way to wheat fields.
cramp : a sudden pain you get when the muscles in a particular part of your body contradict,
usually caused by cold or too much exercise
The currency of evolution is neither hunger nor pain.
currency : the fact that sth is used or accepted by a lot of people
Just as the economic success of a company is measured only by the number of dollars
So the evolutionary success of a species is measured by the number of copies of its DNA.
Why would any sae person lower his or her standard of living
just to multiple the number of copies of the Homo sapiens genome ?
plough field
sow wheat
sow : to plant or spread seeds in or on the ground
(p95)
hormonal - hormone : a chenical substance produced in the body
that encourages growth or influence how the cells and tissues function
hormonal change occuring during the pregnancy
help control procreation
reach puberty
puberty : the period of a person`s life in which their sexual organs develop
and they become capable of having children
a burden on nomadic foragers
Around-the-clock suckling significantly decreases the chances of getting pregnant.
(When suckling a baby, she rarely have chance to have a sex even with husband.)
suckle : to feed a baby or young animal with milk from the breast or udder
breast : woman`s body`s part that produce milk
around the clock : always, even when they are eating or sleeping
partial sexual abstinence
abstinence : not allowing yourself sth, especially alcoholic drinks, for moral, religious or health reasons
abortion : the deliberate of a pregnancy at an early stage
infanticide : the crime of killing a baby
inadvently
winnow : to blow air through grain to remove its outer covering
grind : to break or crush sth into very small pieces between two hard structures or using special machine
shrub : a large plant that is smaller than a tree and that has several stems of wood coming from the ground
bush : shrub
herb : do not have persistent woody stems like bush or shrub
monopolise
nutrient
abundant
plentiful
vocabularies when we make flour from wheat
hoe land
plough land
sow seeds
ingather or harvest with stone scythe
winnow grains
grind winnowed grains with stone pestle and mortar
(p96)
Natufian culture flourished from 12,500 BC to 9500 BC in the Lavent, the Middle East.
stone scythe : a tool with a long handle and a slightly curved blade
stone pestle mortars to grind it
pestle : a small heavy tool with a round end used for crashing things in a special bowl called mortar
mortar : a bowl used with pestle
hoe : a garden tool with a long handle and a blade, used for breaking up soil and removing weeds
No sinle step separated the woman gathering wild wheat from the woman farming domesticated wheat,
so it`s hard to say exactly when the decisive transition to agriculture took place.
But by 8500 BC, the Middle East was peppered with permanent villages.
the decisive transition
(p97)
Babies were weaned at an earlier age.
wean : to gradually stop feeding a baby or a young animal with its mother`s milk
and start feeding it with a solid food
They could be fed on porridge and gruel.
The extra hands were sorely needed in the fields.
porridge : a type of soft thick white food made by boiling oats in milk or water, eaten hot, especially for breakfast
gruel : a simple dish made by boiling oats in milk or water, eaten especially in the past by poor people
the food surpluses : the extra food that is more than they need
surplus : an amount that is extra or more than you need
extra
disease-ridden settlements
siblings
Child mortality soared.
Yet the increase in births still outpaced the increase in deaths.
Children died in droves, and adults are bread by the sweat of their brows.
drove : a large number of people or animals, often moving or doing sth as a group
brow : the part of the face above the eyes and below the hair
sweat : drops of liquid that appear on the surface of your skin when you are hot
by the sweat of their brows : with their elaboration
Every generation continued to live like the previous generation, making only small improvements here and there in the way things were done.
Paradoxically, a series of `improvements`, each of which was meant to make life easier,
added up to a milestone around the necks of these farmers.
(added up to a eraborate burden around the necks of these farmers)
millstone : one of two flat stones used to crush grains
People were unable to fathom the full consequences of their decisions.
(p98)
Neither did the early farmers understand that
feeding children with more porridge and less breast milk would weaken their immune system,
and that permanent settlements would be hotbeds for infectious diseases.
breast : either of the two round soft parts at the front of a woman`s body that produce milk
the deprecations of drought
bulging granaries :
bulge : to be completely full
Her pockets were bulging with presents
a bulging breifcase
bulge : to stick out from sth in a round shape
her bulging eyes
stick out : to be noticable or easily seen / to get outstanding
granary : a building where grain is stored
When the plan backfired?
The trap snapped shut.
vow : a formal and serious promise, especially a religious one
They doubled their efforts and keep slaving away.
One of history`s few iron laws is that luxuries tend to become necessities and to spawn new obligations.
Once people get used to a certain luxury, they take it for granted.
Then they begin to count on it.
Finally they reach a point where they can`n live without it.
Rather than writing the first thing that came into their heads,
they considered carefully what they wanted to say and how to phrase it.
We revved up the treadmill of life to ten times its former speed
and made our days more anxious and agitated.
rev : when you rev an engine or on it, it runs quickly
The taxi driver revved up his engine.
I could hear the car revving outside.
treadmill : work or a way of life which is boring or tiring because it involves always doing the same thing
agitate : to argue strongly for sth, especially for changes in a law
agitate : to make sb feel angry
Luddite holdout
Luddite : a person who is opposed to new technology or working methods Named after Ned Lud
hold out : to last, especially in a difficult situation
hold out : to resist or survive, especially in a difficult situation
irresistible
swift : happening or done quickly and immediately
a swift action
He rose to his feet in one swift movement.
sheer weight of numbers
sheer : used to emphasize the size, degree or amount of sth
The area is under threat from the sheer number of tourists using it.
Either way, the old life was doomed.
doom : death or destuction
doom : to make sb/sth certain to fail, suffer or die, etc.
The plan was doomed to failure.
till : to prepare and use land for growing crops
(p100)
Nobody plotted the Agricultural Revolution or sought human dependence on cereal cultivation.
plot : to make a secret plan to harm sb, especially a goverment or its leader
cereal : one type of grass which produces grain
A series of trivial dicision aimed mostly at filling a few stomachs and gaining a little security
had the cumulative effect of forcing ancient foragers to spend their days carrying water buckets under a scorching sun.
scorch : to burn and slightly damage a surface by making it too hot
It`s very plausible.
plausible (- applauded) : reasonable or likely to be true
aspiration : strong desire to have or do sth
memoir : an acount written by sb, especially sb famous, about their life and experiences
It is difficult to prove that preliterate people were motivated by faith rather than economic necessity.
strarum
pillared
spectacular engraving
quarry
half-chiselled
(p101)
Stonehenge dates to 2500 BC, and was built by a developed agricultural society.
The structures at Goebekli Tepe are dated to about 9500 BC,
and all available evidence indicates that they were built by hunter-gatherers.
unilitarian
The only way to build Goebekli Tepe was for thousands of foragers belonging to different bands and tribes to cooperate over an extended period of time.
Only a sophisticated religious or ideological system could sustain such efforts.
Goebekli Tepe held another sensational secret.
(p102)
In order to feed the people who built and used the monumental structures,
particularly large quantities of food were required.
It may well be that foragers switched from gathering wild wheat to intense wheat cultivation,
not to increase their normal food supply,
but rather to support buildings and running of a temple.
intense : very great; very strong
When it prospered, they were happy.
prosper : to develop in a successful way
The Faustian bargain between human and grains was not the only deal our species made.
Faustian : an agreement in which sb agrees to do sth bad or dishonest
Another deal was struck concerning the fate of animals such as sheep, goats, pigss and chickens.
Normadic bands that stalked sheep gradually altered the constituions of the herds on which they preyed.
prey : an animal, bird .. that is hunted, killed and eaten by another
This process probably began with selective hunting.
Humans learned that it was to their advantage to hunt only adult rams and old or sick sheep.
corralled the herd into a narrow gorge
corral : a fenced area for hourses, sheep, etc.
corral : to force horses or cows into a corral
corral : to gather a group of people and keep them in a particular place
(p103)
The most aggressive rams,
those that showed the greatest resitance to human control, were slaughtered first.
So were the skinniest and most inquisitive females.
inquisitive : asking too many questions and trying to find out about what other people are doing, etc.
skinny : very thin (skinny leg) ; low in fat ; desined to fit closely to the body
submissive : too willing to accept sb`s authority and willing to obey them without questioning
(p104)
fatten
hitherto
sinew
tribes of pastoralist herders
Today the world contains about a billion sheep, a billion pigs, more than a billion cattle, and more than 25 billion chickens.
From a narrow evolutionary perspective,
which measures success by the number of DNA copies, the Agricultural Revolution was a wonderful boon for chickens, cattle, pigs and sheep.
boon : something that is very helpful and makes life easier for you
fowl : a bird that is kept for its meat and eggs
From a narrow evolutionary perspective which measures success by the number of DNA copies,
the Agricultural Revolution was a wonderful boon for chickens, cattle, pigs and sheep.
(p105)
The domestication of animals was founded on a series of brutal practives that only became crueller with the passing of the centuries.
brutal : violent and cruel
slaughter : kill an animal, usually for its meat
In contrast, the vast majority of domesticated chickens and cattle are slaughtered
at the age of between a few weeks and a few months,
because this has always been the optimal slaughtering age from an economic perspective.
But the price of the long life of fowl is subjugation to a way of life completely alien to their urges and desires.
It`s reasonable to assume, for example, that bulls prefer to spend their days wandering ovr open prairies in the company of other bulls and cows rather than pulling carts and ploughshares
under the yoke of a whip-wielding ape.
prairy
ploughshares : (a machine which ploughe lands shared and pulled by cows ? )
In order to turn bulls, horses, donkeys and camels into obedient draught animals,
their natural instincts and social ties had to be broken,
their aggression and sexuality contained, and their freedom of movement curtailed.
contain : to prevent sth harmful from spreading or getting worse
curtail : to limit sth or make it last for a shorter time
Spending on books has been severely curtailed.
The lecture was curtailed by the fire alarm going off.
go off : to leave a place, especially to do sth
if a bomb / gun goes off, it explodes / is fired.
if an alarm goes off, it makes a sudden loud noise
if a light or the electricity goes off, it suddenly stop working
Farmers developed techniques such as locking animals inside pens and cages,
bridling them in harnesses and leashes, training them with whips and cattle prods, and multilating them.
pens and cages
bridle
leash
whip
cattle prod
mutilate : to damage sb`s body seriously, especially cutting off part of it
The process of taming almost always involves the castration of males.
castrate : to remove the testicles of a male animal or person
testicle : either of two ball-shaped organs that produce sperms
To ensure that the pigs can`t run away, farmers in northern New Guinea slice off a chunk of each pig`s nose.
This causes severe pain whenever the pig tries to sniff.
Since the pigs cannot find food or even find their way around without sniffing,
this mutilation makes them completely dependent on their human owners.
It has been customary to gouge out pigs` eyes, so that they cannot see where they`re going.
gouge : to make a hole or cut in sth with a sharp object in a rough or violent way
gorge : a narrow valley
calf : 1. the back part of the leg between the ankle and the knee
calf : 2. a yound cow / a young animal such as whale, elephant
(p107)
suckle : to feed a baby or young animal with milk from the breast or udder
stratagem : a trick or plan that you use to gain an advantage or to trick an opponent
stuff the skin
stuff : to fill a space or container tightly with sth
stuff : to fill the dead body of an animal with material and preserve it, so that it keeps original shape and apperance
The stuffed offspring was then presented to the mother so that its presence would encourage her milk production.
prick : to make a very small hole in sth with a sharp point
puncture : to make a small hole in sth
gouge : to make a hole in sth with a sharp object
Tuareg camel breeders in the Sahara used to puncture or cut off parts of the nose and upper lip of young camels in order to make suckling painful, thereby discouraging them from consuming too much milk.
Shepherds and farmers throughout history showed affection for their animals and have taken great care of them,
just as many slaveholders felt affection and concern for their slaves.
(p108)
show affection for A
kings and prophets
prophet : a person sent by God to teach people
shepherd :
flock : a group of sheep, birds or goats of the same type
(p109)
The Agricultural Rebolution was terrible catastrophe.
Their evolutionary `success` is meaningless.
a rare wild rhinoceros on the brink of extinction
on the brink of extinction / collapse / war / death / disaster
brink : if you are in the brink of sth, you are almost in a new, dangerous, or exciting situation.
The contented rhinoceros is no less content for being amoung the last of its kind.
The numerical success of the calf`s species is little consolation for the suffering the individual endures.
(The numerical success of the calf`s species do not help the suffering individual endures.)
contented - content : to accept and be satisfied with sth and not have or do sth better
consolation : a thing or person that make you feel better when you are unhappy or unsatisfied
This discrepancy between evolutionary success and individual suffering is perhaps the most important lesson
we can draw from the Agricultural Revolution.
In the following chapters we will see time and again how a dramatic increase in the collective power
and ostensible success of our species went hand in hand with much individual suffering.
hand in hand : if two people are hand in hand, they are holding each other`s hand
hand in hand : if two things go hand in hand, they are closely connected and one thing cause the other
~~~
## Building Pyramids
~~~
(p110)
the most controversial events in history
it led to perdition
perdition <=> prosperity, progress
This was the turning point, they say,
where Sapiens cast off its intimate symbiosis with nature and aprinted towards greed and alienation.
symbiosis (sym-bio-sis) : ( biology ) the relation ship between two creature living close together and depending on each other
greed : a strong desire for wealth, possesions, power, etc. than a person need
By the 1st century AD, only 1-2 million foragers remained (mainly in Australia, America),
but their numbers were dwarfed by the world`s 250 farmers.
dwarf : a creature like a small man, who has magic powers and who is described as living and working under the ground, especially working with metal
dwarf : to make sth small or unimportant compared with sth else
The old houses were dwarfed by the huge new tower blocks.
turf : short grass and the surface layer of soil that is held together by its root.
turf : an area in which sb lives around
(p111)
Henceforth, attachment to `myhouse` and separation from the neighbours became the phychological hallmark of a much more self-centred creature.
They laboriously carved out of the surrounding wilds.
They cut down forests, dug canals, cleared fields, built houses, ploughed furrows,
and planted fruit trees in tidy rows.
furrow : a long narrow cut in the ground, especially one made by a plough for planting seeds
The resulting artificial habitat was often fenced off by walls and hedges.
fenced off by walls and hedges
interloper : a person who is present in a place or a situation where they do not belong
She felt like an interloper in her own family.
Their human antagonists sought ways to exterminate them.
From the dawn of agriculture until this very day, billions of humans armed with branches, swatters, shoes and
prison sprays have waged relentless war against the diligent ants, furtive roaches, adventurous spiders and
misfuided beetles that constantly infiltrate the human domicile.
swatter
swat : to hit sth, especially an insect, using your hand or a flat object
wage : a regular amount of money that you earn, usually every week, for work or services
relentless : not stopping or getting less strong
furtive roach
furtive : behaving in a way that shows that you want sth in a secret and do not want to be noticed
roach : cockroach
infiltrate : to enter or make sb enter a place or an organization secretly
domicile : the place where sb lives, especially when it is stated for official or legal purpose
enclave : an area of a country or city where the people have a different religion, culture or nationality from those who live in the country or city that surrounds it.
This minuscule 2 per cent of the earth`s surface continued the stage on which history unfolded.
granary without grave risk of loss :
granary : a building where grain is stored
(p112)
Forager discounted the future because they lived from hand to mouth and could only preserve food or accumulate possessions with difficulty.
Social alliances and political rivalries were long-term affairs.
It often took years to reply a favour or to average a wrong.
Nevertheless, in the subsistence economy of hunting and gathering,
there was an obvious limit to such long-term planning.
Paradoxically, it saved foragers a lot of anxieties.
There was no sense in worrying about things that they could not infuence.
Farmers must always keep the future in mind.
(p113)
Concern about the future was rooted not only in teh seasonal cycles of production,
but also in the fundamental uncertainty of agriculture.
They were at the mercy of droughts, floods and pestilence.
pestilence : any infectious disease that spreads quickly and kills a lot of people
silo : a tall tower on a farm used for storing grain
silo : an underground space where nuclear weapons or dangerous substainces are kept
jar : a round glass container with a lid, used for storing food, especailly jam, hoeny...
lid : (sym top/cap/cork/plug) these are all `cover for a container`
sniffing the wind
batter : to hit sb/sth many times, especially in a way that causes serious damage
seedling : a young plant that has grown from a seed
trepidation : a great worry or fear about sth unpleasant that may happen
fertile topsoil
But floods that surged too high or came at the wrong time could destroy their fields as much as a drought.
The anxious peasant was as frenetic and hard-working as a harvester ant in the summer,
sweating to plant olive trees whose oil would be pressed by his children and grandchildren.
frenetic : involing a lot of energy and activity in a way that is not organized
(p114)
The stress of farming had far-reaching consequences.
It was the foundation of large-scale political and social systems.
Sadly, the deligent peasants almost almost never achived the future economic security they so craved
through their hard work in the present.
crave A : to have a very strong desire for sth / long for
greed : a strong desire for wealth more that a person needs
from cradle to grave
The extra they produced fed the tiny minority of elites
- kings, government officials, soldiers, priests, artists and thinkers - who fill the history books.
The food surpluses enabled more and more people to cram together first into large villeges, then into towns, and finally into cities, all of them joined together by new kingdoms and commercial networks.
cram : to push or force sb/sth into a small space
And if no agreement can be reached, strife spreads, even if the storehouses are bulging.
strife : angry or violent disagreement between two people or a group of people
bulge : to be stuffed
The French Revbolution was spearheaded by affluent lawyers, not by faminished peasants.
spearhead : a person or group that begin an activity or lead an attack against sb/sth
spear : a weapon with a long wooden handle and a sharp metal point
(p115)
Yogoslavia still disintegrated into a terrible bloodbath.
calamity : an event that causes greatt damage to people`s lives, property, etc.
The handful of millennia separating the Agricultural Revolution from the appearance of cities,
kingdoms and empires was not enough time to allow an instinct for mass cooperation to evolve.
Despite the lack of such biological instinces, during the foraging era,
hundreds of strangers were able to cooperate thanks to their shared myths.
However, this cooperation was loose and limited.
mythology
While human evolution was crawling at its usual snail`s pace,
the human imagination was building astouding networks of mass cooperation.
snail : a small soft creature a hard shell on its back, that moves very slowly, some of them can be eaten
at its usual snail`s pace
astounding : surprising / shocking
astound : (syn: astonish) to surprise or shock sb very much
(p116)
sprout
sway : to move slowly from side to side
pharaoh
In 221 the Qin dynasty united China
dynasty : the series of rulers of a country who all belong to the same family
the Mediterranean basin
basin (washbasin) : a large round bowl for hoding liquid
Tax levied.
levy : an extra amount of money that has to be paid, especially as a tax to the govenment
Qin subjects : people who is subobedient with Qin / people who have the right to belong Qin country
bureaucracy : the system of official rules and ways of doing things that a government
or an organization has, especially when these seem to be too complicated
at its zenith
subject : a person who has right to belong the country, especially of one king or queen
therres and amphitheatres
amphitheatre : a round building without a roof and with rows of seats that rise in steps in an open space
harbour rosy illusions
harbour : to hide or protect sb who is hiding from police
`Cooperation` sounds very altruistic.
Most human cooperation networks have beed geared towards oppression and expoitation.
oppress : to treet sb in an unfair way, especially by not giving them the same freedom, or rights as other people
burgeoning cooperation network
burgeon : to begin to grow or develop rapidly
(p117)
vicous gladiatorial combat
vicous : violent and cruel
gladiatorial - gladiator : an entertainer trained to fight other men/animals in public
All these cooperation networks were `imagined orders`.
How can myths sustain entier empires ?
We have already discussed one such example: Peugeot.
Next let`s examine two of the best known myths of history:
`the Code of Hammurabi of 1776 BC` and `the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 AD`
(p118)
judicial decisions
judicial : connected with a court, a judge ,..
judicial powers
(p119)
Future generations took notice.
Elite canonised the text, and apprentice scribes countinued to copy it long after Hammurabi died.
canonise : to state officially that sb is now a saint
saint : a person churches recognized as being very holy
apprentice : a young person who works for an employer for a fixed period of time in order to learn particular skills needed for their jobs
(p120)
The principle of hierarchy is of paramount importance.
According to the code, people are divided into two genders and three classes:
superior people, commoners and slaves.
A female commoner is worth 30 silver shekels.
A slave woman is worth 20 silver shekels.
A male commoner is worth 60 silver shekels.
(p122)
retort : reply quickly to a comment, in an angry, offended or humorous way
Hammurabi and the American Founding Fathers alike imagined a reality
governed by universal and immutable principles of justice, such as equality or hierarchy.
a figment of the imagination : no stretch of the imagination
The idea of equality is inextrecably intertwined with the idea of creation.
Every person has a divinely created soul.
`Created equal` should therefore be translated into `evolved differently`.
(p123)
Birds fly not because they have a right to fly, but ~.
The ostrich is a bird that lost its ability to fly.
So `unalienable rights` should be translated into `mutable characteristics`.
Humans in democratic societies are free.
Humans in dictatorships are unfree.
The lines from the American Declaration of Independence translated into biologiical terms:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men evolved differently,
that thery are born with certain mutable characteristics,
and that amoung these are life and the pursuit of pleasure.
Adovocates of equality
advocate A : support A publicly
(p124)
Imagined orders are not evil conspiracies or useless mirages
conspiracy : a secret plan by a group of people to do sth harmful or illegal
mirage : an effect caused by hot air in deserts or on roads, that makes you think you see sth, such as water, which is not there
It`s likely that more that a few readers squirmed in their chairs while reading the preceding paragraphs.
squirm : to move around a lot making small twisting movements, because you are nervous, unconfortable
The children were squirming restlessly in their seats.
Voltaire said about God that `Ther is no God, but don`t tell that to my servant, lest he muder me at night`.
Do not A, lest B : if A happened, then B.
A natual order is a stable order.
In contrast, an imagined order is always in danger of collapse.
Because the myths vanish once people stop believing it.
(p125)
If an ancient Babylonian blinded his neighbor, ~.
regime :
Prince Tallerrand, who began his chameleon like carrer under Luis XVI,
later served the revolutionary and Napoleonic regimes,
and switched loyalities in time to end his days working for the restored monarchy,
summed up decades of government experience by saying that
`You can do many thins with bayonets, but it is rather uncomfortable to sit on them`
bayonet : a long sharp knife that is fastened onto the end of a rifle and used as a weapon in a battle
fasten : to close and join together two parts of sth
It is impossible to organise an army solely by coercion.
coercion : the action that makes sb do what they do not want to do, using forces or threatening to use forces
The elite may do so out of cynical greed.
cynical : behaving that person only do things to help themselves rather than good or honest reasons
cynic : a person who think that people are cynical
(p126)
Diogence, the Greek philosopher
bishops and priests
bishop : a senior priest
The modern economic system would not have lasted a sinle day if the majority of investors and bankers failed d to believe in caitalism.
Free markets are the best economic system, not because Adam Smith said so,
but because these are the immutable laws of nature.
(p127)
working-class attire
attire : clothes
dressed in formal evening attire
No young nobleman would have worn a peasant`s smock
worn - wear
smock : a loose comfortable piece of clothing like a long shirt, worn especially by women
Back then,
to be addressed as `Sir` or `Madam` was a rare privilege reserved for the nobility,
and often purchased with blood.
Today all polite correspondence, regardless of the recipient, begins with `Dear Sir or Madam`.
How the imagined order is woven into the tapestry of life?
weave - woven
~~~
~~~
Three main factors prevent people from realising that the order organising their lives exists only in their imagination:
a. The imagined order is embedded in the matirial world.
In modern architecture, this myth leaps out of the imaginatino to take shape in store and mortar.
The ideal modern house is devided into many small rooms
so that each child can have a private space, hidden from view, providing maximum autonomy.
This private room almost invariably has a door, and in many households it is accepted practice for the child to close,
and perhaps lock, the door.
b. The imagined order shapes our desire.
Our personal defires thereby become the imagined order`s most importand defences.
the most cherished desires
cherish A : to love A very much
Friends giving advice often tell each other, `Follow your heart.`
But the heart is a double agent that usually takes its instructions from the dominant myths of the day.
The very recommendation to `follow your heart` was implanted in our minds
by a combination of 19th-century Romantic myths and 20th-century consumerist myths.
The Coca-Cola Company, for example, has marketed Diet Coke.
The elite of ancient Egypt spent their fortunes building pyramids and having their corpses mummified,
but none of them thought of going shopping in Babylone or taking a skiing holidays in Phoenicia.
People today spend a great deal of money on holidays abroad because they are true belivers in the myths of romantic consumerism.
The marriage of Romanticism and consumerism has given birth to the infinite `market of experience`
widen
ardent : enthuastic and showing strong feelings about sth
Romanticism tells us that ~.
c. The imagined order is inter-subjective.
1. An object phenomenon exists independenly of human consciousness and human beliefs.
Radioactivity, for example, is not a myth.
While she did not believe that radioactivity could kill her,
she nevertherless died of aplastic anaemia, a disease caused by overexposure to radioactive materials
overexposure to radioactive materials
2. The subjective exists depending on consciousness and belief of a single individual.
3. The iner-subjective is something that exists within the communication network
linking the subjective consciousness of may individuals.
If a sinle individual changes his or her beliefs, or even dies, it is of little importance.
charade : a situation in which people pretend that sth is true when it clearly is not
Many of history`s most important drivers are inter-subjective: law, money, gods, nations
If Peugeot`s CEO alone were suddenly to stop believing in Peugeot`s existence,
he`d quickly land in the nearest mental hospital and someone else whould occupy his office.
So in order to change them we must simultaneously change the consciousness of billions of people, which is not easy.
It follows that in order to change an existing imagined order,
we must first believe in an alternative imagined order.
dismantle : take apart a machine or a structure
I had to dismantle the engine in order to repair it.
mantle : to cover the surface of
There is no way out of the imagined order.
When we break down our prison walls and run towards freedom,
we are in fact running into the more spacious exercise yard of a bigger prison.
~~~
## Memory Overload
~~~
(p134)
Evolution did not endow humans with the ability to play football.
True, it produced legs for kicking, elbows for fouling and mouths for crusing,
but that all that this enables us to do is perhaps practise penalty kicks by ourselves.
ritualise
endow :
foul :
cruse :
Puppies throughout the world have the rules for rough-and-tumble play hard-wired into their genes.
tumble : to fall downwards, often hitting the ground many times, but usually without serious damages
ritualise : to do sth in the same way or pattern every time
hard-wired : built into pernanent system and not provided by software
hard-wired : (of a skill) present when you are born and not changed in your life
hard-wired into their genes
(p135)
Ants and bees are resilient because most of the information needed to sustain them is encoded in the genome.
A female honeybee larva can, for example, grow up to be either a queen or a worker,
depending on what food it is fed.
Researchers have failed to locate lawyer bees.
The queen does not cheat the cleaner bees of their food,
and they never go on strike demanding higher wages.
But humans do such things all the time.
Because the Sapiens social order is imagined,
humans cannot preserve the critical information for running it simply by making copies of their DNA
and passing these on their prgeny.
decree : an official order from a ruler or a government that becomes the law
(136)
mnemonist :
mnemonic : a word, sentence, poem that helps you to remember sth
transcend : to be or go beyound the usual limits of sth (syn : exceed)
There is a limit that even master mnemonists cannot transcend.
remedy : a way of dealing with or improving unpleasant or difficult situation
bear in mind :
ally : a country that has agreed to help another country, especially in case of a war
botanical : connected with the science of botany
botany : the scientific study of plants and their structure
imperative : very important and needing immediate attention or action
It is absolutely imperative that we finish by next week.
It is imperative to continue the treatment for at least two months.
(p137)
In order to tax millions of people, it was imperatibe to collect data about people`s incomes and possessions.
arrears : the money that sb owes that they have not paid at the right time (つけ)
arrears, debts and fines
exemption : official permission not to do sth or pay sth that you would normally have to do or pay
most human brais overdosed or fell asleep
constrained the size
Sumerian, who lived in southern Mesopotamia, geniuses invented a system for storing and processing information outside their brains,
one that was custom-built to handle large amounts of mathematical data.
The Sumerians thereby release their socil ordr from the limitations of the human brain.
The data-processing system invented by the Sumerians is called `writing`.
(p138)
clay tablet
There were signs for 1,10,60,600,3600 and 36,000.
The Sumerians used a combination of base-6 and base-10 numeral system.
Their base-6 system bestowed on us several important legacies,
such as the division of the day into 24 hours and of the circle into 360 degrees.
By combining both types of signs the Sumerians were able to preserve far more data than any human brain could remember or any DNA chain could encode.
barley : a plant grown for its grain used for making food, beer and shiskey
probable : likely to happen
Alas, ~. : (exclamation) How sad it is that ~.
apprentice : a young person working for a fixed period of time to learn skills they use.
(p139)
Latin Script, ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics and Braille are full scripts, and not partial scirpt.
Partial script is a system of material signs that can represent only particular types of information,
belonging to a limited field of activity.
It didn`t disturb the Sumerians that their script was ill-suited for writing poetry.
Andean script was written by tying knots on colourful cords called quipus.
(p140)
Thanks to quipus, the Incas could save and process large amounts of data,
without which they would not have been able to maintain the complex administrative machinery that an empire of that size requires.
(p141)
When Spaniards came to Inca,
the problem was that the Spaniards did not themselves know how to record and read quipus,
making them dependent on local professionals.
The continent`s new rulers relalised that this placed them in a tenuous position -
the native quipu experts could mislead and cheat their overlords.
undecipherable :
Very few quipus survived the Spanish occupation, and most of those remaining are undecipherable, since, unfortunately, the art of reading qupus has been lost.
cuneiform : an ancient system of writing used in Persia and Assyria.
exalt : to make sb rise to a higher rank or position, sometimes to one that they not deserve
deserve : if sb/sth deserve A, it is right for sb/sth to have A, because of the way they have behaved or because of what they are
dramas, prophecies and cookbooks
prophecy : a statement that will happen in the future, especially one made by sb with magic powers or religious
ream : a large quantity of writing
realm : an area of activity, interest, or knowledge
prerogative : a right or advantage belonging to a particular person or group because of their importance or social position
(p142)
But tax registries and complex bureaucracies were born together with partial script,
and the two remain inexorably linked to this day like Samese twins.
inexorable : that cannot be stopped or changed
think of the cryptic entries in computerised databases
instantaneously : happening immediately
We all know that the brain`s retrieval system is amazingly efficient,
except when you are trying to remember where you put your car keys.
How are trying to remember where you put your car keys.
How, though, do you find and retrieve information stored on quipu cords or clay tablets?
retort : reply quickly at an angry or offensive attitude
She retorted that it was my fault as much as hers.
grumble : complain about sth/sb in a bad-tempered way
(p144)
Even if he finds it, how will he be able to cross-check to ensure that
the one from thirty years ago is the latest document relating to the field in question?
cross-check : both your dealing partner and you check
double-check : you check twice
Data processing requires
methods of organisation like catalogues
methods of reproduction like photocopy machines,
methods of rapid and accurate retrieval like computer algorithms and
pedantic librarian who know how to use these tools
pedantic : too worried about small details or rules
What set apart Sumer is that these cultures developed good techniques of archiving, cataloguing
and retrieving written records.
cane : the hard hollow of stem of some plants
cane : these stems used to make furniture such as chairs
cane : a piece of cane or a thin stick
cane : a piece of cane or a thin stick used to help sb to walk
cane : to hit a child with a cane
Ancient scribes learned to usd catalogues, dictionaries, forms and tables.
spouse : a husband or wife
alligator : a large reptile similar to crocodile, with a long tail, hard skin and very big jaws
that lives in N/S america and China
leitmotif : a short tune in a piece of music that often repeated and is connected with a particulr person, things, or idea
leitmotif : an idea or phrase that is repeated often in a book or work of art,
or is typical of a particular person or group
In bureaucracy, things must be kept apart.
home mortgages
(p146)
In order to function,
the people who operate such a system of drawers must be reprogrammed to stop thinking as humans
and to start thinking as clerks and accountants.
compartmentalisation :
compartmentalise : to devide sth into seperate sections, especially one thing does not affect the other
(p147)
anew : (adv) if A does B anew, A does it again from the beginning or does it in a different way
Crucial parts of Mathematical process take place not in the head, but inside computers or on classroom blackboards.
mind-boggling : very difficult to imagine or to understand; extremely surprising
The Matrix and The Terminator tell of a day when the binary script throws off the yoke of humanity.
~~~
## There Is No Justice in History
~~~
(p149)
~~~
# The Unification of Humankind
## The Arrow of History
~~~
(p181)
~~~